Geospatial Technologies and Advancing Geographic Decision Making: Issues and Trends

Advances in Applied Geospatial Research

On multiple fronts – academic, professional, and government – geographic information science and technology (GIS&T) is buzzing with glowing accolades (Nature Publishing Group, 2004; U.S. DOLETA, 2009; U.S. DOL, GITA & AAG, n.d.). Catching this wave of enthusiasm vibrating through the geospatial industries, IGI Global presents Geospatial Technologies and Advancing Geographic Decision Making: Issues and Trends (Albert, 2010a; Albert, 2010b; Albert & Strait, 2010). This volume is designed as a resource for private and public sector applied geographers engaged as geospatial technicians, analysts, scientists, and managers. It includes chapters that highlight the use of geospatial technologies to explore applied geographic issues and problems; studies from economic geography, urban geography, population geography, medical geography, political geography, geography of education, geography of crime, and transportation geography are considered. Geospatial Technologies and Advancing Geographic Decision Making: Issues and Trend is a compilation designed to provide planners and policy analysts, practitioners, academicians (students, faculty, administrators) and others using GIS&T information to support education, training, and career initiatives (Section 1) and to offer studies that employ geospatial technologies (geospatial statistics, global positioning systems, geographic information systems, remote sensing, etc.) to answer practical, utilitarian, and applied geographic questions in human geography (IJAGR, 2009). Before describing the organization and content of this volume a brief section follows that defines “applied geography” and “GIS&T” and concludes with a synopsis of their evolution and intersection.

Applied Geography and GIS&T

Applied geography is “a type of research that uses geographic principles to solve problems” (Wilson & Smith, 2008, p. 2). It involves “the application of geographic knowledge and skills to the resolution of social, economic and environmental problems” (Pacione, 1999, p. 3, italics in original). This definition emphasizes the geographer’s toolbox (skills), but not to the exclusion of knowledge (principles), and recognizes the range of problems (social, economic, and environmental) suitable for investigation. Gibson’s proclamation that “the more that it is tied to problem solving the better” (Gibson, 2007, p. 35) further emphasizes the problem-solving aspect of applied geography. The “plethora of problem situations which confront modern societies” guarantees applied geographers no shortage of potential contributions (Pacione, 2004, p. 23). The expectation, of course, is that applied geographic research “solve problems that inform decision-making and policy” (Torrieri & Ratcliffe, 2003, p. 541) and ultimately improves the human-environment condition. Some use the terms GIS&T and geospatial interchangeably to describe the field or industry that “acquires, integrates, manages, analyzing, maps, distributes, and uses geographic information and knowledge” (U.S. DOL, GITA & AAG, n.d.). Drawing from the disciplines of geography and information science & technology, GIS&T encompasses three interacting sub-domains: geographic information science (GIScience), geospatial technology, and applications of geographic information science and technology. One sub-domain, GIScience, involves understanding the “nature of geographic information and the application of geospatial technologies to basic scientific questions” (DiBiase et al., 2006, p. 5). With exceptions, two-way asymmetrical relations exist between GIScience and such cognate realms as philosophy, psychology, mathematics (symmetrical), statistics, and computer science. Another sub-domain, geospatial technology, supports the acquisition, storage, manipulation, analysis, and display of georeferenced data using geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing, surveying and global positioning systems (GPS), mapping and cartography, 3-D imaging and other visualization tools. The remaining sub-domain, applications of GIScience and technology, demonstrates the “diverse uses of geospatial technology in government, industry, and academia” (DiBiase et al., 2006, p. 6). It is this third sub-domain, applications of GIS&T, that is illustrated within the pages of Geospatial Technologies and Advancing Geographic Decision Making: Issues and Trends.

Applied geography is an approach rather than a specialty because it “rejects artificial academic boundaries and highlights linkages between different geographical phenomena” (Pacione, 2004, p. 23). Nevertheless, applied geography is often treated as a specialty for the convenience of forming a group of individuals with shared interests from a larger organization. For example, the Applied Geography Specialty Group is one of over 60 specialty and affinity groups recognized by the Association of American Geographers. Applied geography, however, is not a specialty in the strict sense because it possesses neither an exclusive body of knowledge or “set of techniques, concepts, methodologies, and theories” (Torrieri & Ratcliffe, 2003, p. 541). Applied geography as an approach fosters connections between applied and pure sciences, academic and non-academic (professional) domains, client-driven and curiosity-driven research, human and physical geographic specialties, and the emerging entrepreneurial university (Gibson, 2007; Pacione, 2004).

Applied geography has grown through a synergetic union with GIS&T. Torrieri and Ratcliffe (2003) acknowledged that “the growth of applied geography has been fueled by the development and exchange of geographic tools and resources” (p. 545). Recently the Department of Labor’s Employment and Training Administration listed “geospatial” as one of fourteen high growth industries (U.S. DOLETA, 2009). This was forecasted earlier in the widely disseminated piece titled Mapping Opportunities with the statement that “[T]he demand for geospatial skills is growing worldwide” (Nature Publishing Group, 2004, p. 376).

Over the last decade use of GIS&T has become a modus operandi within applied geographic research circles. Montz and Tobin (2007) categorized articles appearing in the Papers of the Applied Geography Conferences by primary and secondary themes for three time periods within 1979-2006. The theme “GIS” started off at 5% during 1978-1987, jumped to 17% during 1988 to 1997, and dropped to 12% during 1998-2006 (Box 1). Rather than indicating a decline in these technologies however, Montz and Tobin (2007, p. 7) explained that

By the third time period, GIS tools are well embedded in geographic research, and are now beginning to include a broader array of approaches known as geographic information science (GISci). While the technology is probably used in a larger proportion of the papers than indicated by the 12 percent, it does not show up as a primary or secondary theme to the research.

Their assessment suggests that GIS&T no longer holds the novelty status among applied geographers it did in the late 1970s.

Box 1. Focus on geographic information systems

Organization

This volume includes nineteen chapters authored and co-authored by thirty-seven authors and co-authors. The authors were drawn from both academic and professional circles and represent twenty-two entities (universities, institutes, and other organizations) from the United States, Canada, and Kenya. The contributors are well credentialed with titles such as distinguished professor, executive director, endowed chair, and award recipient attached to their positions. Most of the authors are nationally recognized in the field of applied geography and are proven leaders in this field. I encourage the readers to examine their biosketches (see About the Contributors beginning on page 319).

Section 1 is titled “Philosophy, Education, Training, and Prospects in Applied Geospatial Industries” and it includes eight chapters. The keywords amalgamated from the chapters in Section 1 illustrate the range of topics covered: geospatial technologies (GIS, GPS, remote sensing), education and training, and career paths and opportunities (Table 1). For geography departments and other academic units, institutes, and organizations proposing or offering education and training in geospatial technologies these chapters provide justification for development and expansion of geospatial personnel, programs and facilities (Box 2).

Box 2. Advice to undergraduate and graduate students pursuing geospatial certificates and degrees

Section 2 is titled “Focus on Human Geography Specialties in Applied Geospatial Research” and it includes eleven chapters. Again, examination of keywords provides insight into content and coverage (Table 2); for example, the materials herein revolve around applied human geographies including: economic, urban, population, medical, crime, and transportation geographies. Numerous geospatial techniques permeate these studies including least cost path, dasymetric mapping, areal interpolation, and retail gravitation to name just some. Together Sections 1 and 2 offer a balance of content of interest to both the academic and practitioner, and those in between.

Table 1. Keywords from “Geospatial Technologies and Advancing Geographic Decision Making"

SECTION 1: PHILOSOPHY, EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND PROSPECTS IN APPLIED GEOSPATIAL INDUSTRIES

Section 1 of Geospatial Technologies and Advancing Geographic Decision Making: Issues and Trends provides fresh perspectives on education, training, and employment opportunities useful to individuals, departments, institutes of higher education, and industries embracing GIS&T. Chapter 1 is based on Barry Wellar’s James R. Anderson Lecture in Applied Geography, sponsored by the Applied Geography Specialty Group, and delivered in Denver at the 2005 Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geographers. Wellar shares valuable perspectives on applied geographic research gained during a career spanning over 40 years. He stresses that synergy exists when combining curiosity-driven and client-driven research methodologies. Wellar’s experience is that the best researchers are those that “ask the question ‘Who cares’ about the value of a research finding, raise the question in both domains, and use the answers to chart the path of future research initiatives in both domains” (Wellar, 2010, p. 4).

Westlund (Chapter 2) reviews the results of a web-based survey of disaster management practitioners. The majority of those surveyed use, or plan to use, geospatial technology, however, their level of geospatial knowledge was found to be rather low (Westlund, 2010). Those within the academic community possessing the requisite expertise and facilities might be encouraged to engage the entrepreneurial university spirit (Bailly, Gibson, & Haynes, 2008) and offer specialized geospatial training and workshops to mitigate known geospatial deficiencies within particular user groups (disaster management, law enforcement, health care). Let’s hope that the long-standing underutilization critique (Gould, 1992) leveled against certain GIS user groups will eventually diminish.

Next, Richard Boehm and Audrey Mohan (Chapter 3) document the continuing vibrancy of geospatial jobs for students graduating with geography degrees and concomitantly for faculty to fill positions requiring expertise in geospatial technologies. With the infusion of the geospatial technologies across an ever increasing range of applications (i.e., military, criminology, and health care services) Boehm and Mohan conclude that geography departments deem GIS as proprietary and establish its primacy on respective college campuses.

The chapters by Robert Hickey (Chapter 4) and by David Webb and David Hoffpauir (Chapter 5) address issues pertaining to the configuration of hardware and software options, and stress the important role that layout design plays in facilitating the operation of their respective geospatial facilities. These chapters share a common theme, yet their target audiences are quite different. Hickey’s primary audience is students (although faculty are not excluded) and a student-centered organization of the geospatial classroom has enabled him to successfully “reach” this audience. By efficiently organizing classroom furnishings and other accouterments he was able to create spaces conducive to the creation of informal learning communities, thereby stimulating the development of a center for geographical education (Hickey, 2010). Webb and Hoffpauir target law enforcement professionals through the Incident Command Simulation Training Program (InCoSiT) at Sam Houston State University (Huntsville, Texas). InCosiTs Incident Command Post (ICP) is equipped with state-of-the-art computer hardware, software, and personnel that support the integration of geospatial technologies into simulation training scenarios (i.e., hostage crisis, terrorist attack, natural disaster). ICPs most impressive hardware item is a super high-resolution digital imagining table (DIT) large enough (65 inch diagonal screen) to overcome the “huddled group” effect by affording full access to simultaneous viewers (Webb & Hoffpauir, 2010).

Expanding on the employment theme Wikle (Chapter 6) analyzed online job ads for geospatial positions to gauge the qualifications and job titles requested by employers. Using this information, he suggests a model of GISci job titles and career ladders for the GISci technician, analyst, and scientist paths (Wilke, 2010). Lawrence Estaville (Chapter 7) reviews the current status and future prospects in the geospatial workforce in the United States. Esatville foresees continued strong demand in the geospatial workforce particularly for those positions requiring more sophisticated modeling, design, and research capabilities (Estaville, 2010). Finally, Mary Gordinier and Carol Hanchette (2010) provide an example of applied geospatial research using ovarian cancer survival rates and access to care in Kentucky (Chapter 8). Their chapter not only illustrates Wellar’s challenge of combining curiosity-driven and client-driven research methodologies, but the authors were also rewarded with “some surprising results” (Hanchette, personal communications, December 15, 2008).

SECTION 2: FOCUS ON HUMAN GEOGRAPHY SPECIALTIES IN APPLIED GEOSPATIAL RESEARCH

Topics in Section 2 span across a wide spectrum of geographic specialties on economics to crime (Table 2). The authors employed the geospatial technologies to calculate a host of statistical and spatial analytic measures including least cost path analysis, Thiessen polygons, gravity models, autocorrelation statistics, landscape shape index, areal interpolation, and more.

Table 2. Snapshots from Section 2

Chapters 9-13 present a wide range of applications encompassed within the realm of economic geography. Klaas (Chapter 9) compared the gravitation fields and trade areas of existing retail business centers in New Britain, Connecticut, with scenarios of one-half, one-fifth, and three times strength assumptions. This type of analysis allows business managers to visualize contingencies that alter the size, shape, and strength of competing trade areas (Klaas, 2010). Hernandez and Svindal (Chapter 10) examine the spatial distribution of major retail chains in urban Canada from 2001 to 2011. Using descriptive statistics and cartographic analysis the authors glean some emerging retail location strategies (Hernandez & Svindal, 2010). Joseph (Chapter 11) employed ordinary least-squares (OLS) regression and residual mapping to assess locational characteristics and situational factors associated with the fast food competitors McDonald’s and Burger King. The author’s discussion outlined specific geographic differences between these two fast food chains (Joseph, 2010). Zhou (Chapter 12) measured the concentration of retail banking services across the time span 1982 to 2007 for New York and Illinois. Zhou’s analysis allowed for definitive statements about the changing distribution of bank deposits and bank branch offices in this Tale of Two States (Zhou, 2010). Chapter 13 explores whether or not the federal low-income housing program (Section 8) has had an effect on the concentration of poverty in urban areas. Using Jefferson County, Kentucky, Song and Keeling (2010) employ a spatial autocorrelation statistic to delineate hot spots of Section 8 housing and juxtaposed the resulting clusters with Black population, median household income, and median housing value.

Chapters 14 and 15, respectively, discuss geospatial approaches to measuring spatial-temporal change of urban landscapes (Kim, 2010) and spatial population estimation techniques (Jordan, et al. 2010). These studies establish the value of remotely sense data to examine issues in human geography. Chapter 14 demonstrates the use of geospatial technologies to calculate landscape shape indices to measure urban growth across three decades (1984, 1994, and 2004) in northeastern Ohio (Kim, 2010). Jordan and colleagues’ (Chapter 15) review practical approaches to spatial estimation of disaster-affected populations. The authors discuss the advantages of using LandScan (population estimates) with Population Explorer (Internet GIS) in order to answer queries about local population distribution and composition (Jordan et al., 2010).

The next two chapters (16 and 17) deal with using spatial analysis to assess public policy issues in South Carolina (Chapter 16) and Ohio (Chapter 17), respectively. Zhang et al. (2010) studies public-private school choice using descriptive statistics, multiple regression, and cartographic analysis (juxtaposition of dot and choropleth themes). Their findings have both theoretical and practical implications pertaining to education policies in the United States. Rock et al. (Chapter 17) employ a least cost path method to estimate costs of selecting a high-speed rail route for Ohio’s 3-C Corridor (Cleveland, Columbus, and Cincinnati). The authors developed two scenarios incorporating slope and land cover and weighting these with construction and acquisition costs. The least cost path scenarios were juxtaposed with the Ohio Hub Project‘s (OHP) route for comparison (Rock et al., 2010).

Chapters 18 and 19 both address the issue of integrating statistics aggregated at incompatible zonation units. James Wilson and Christopher Mansfield (Chapter 18) demonstrate a methodology which transforms and merges health statistics from counties to respective congressional districts (CD) and effectively links, at least geographically, health and politics— topics that have been dominating the national scene since 2008. Their results provide legislators information at a geographic scale – the CD – that facilitates comparisons between congressional districts (Wilson & Mansfield, 2010). While Wilson and Mansfield focus on mortality rates and interpolating county-level statistics to congressional districts, Gong’s (Chapter 19) challenge is to interpolate crime statistics (burglaries) from police beats to census tracts. Interpolating crime statistics from police beats to census tracts provides the added value of linking with demographic and socio-economic data available from the U.S. Census Bureau. Gong’s tackled this problem by reclassifying remotely sensed data for Houston into seven land cover types (high intensity developed, medium intensity, low intensity developed, developed open space, agriculture, vegetation, and others) to account for population density within land cover types (Gong, 2010). This is an improvement over simpler interpolation approaches that assume a linear or uniform population distribution across geographic units (i.e., census tracts).

The studies highlighted in Section 2 offer intriguing and solid applications useful for problem solving and decision support. The potential for other applications and geospatial solutions is unlimited. The editor, therefore, expects subsequent volumes in this series to follow.

Donald P. Albert

Sam Houston State University, USA

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Portions of this chapter were reprinted with the expressed permission of IGI-Global from previously published editorial prefaces appearing in the International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research (Albert, 2010a; 2010b, 2010c). Chapters 1-19 herein are reprinted by IGI Global from volume 1(1-4) of the International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research with signed consent from an author’s warranty and transfer of copyright agreement with contributors. Dr. Jay Lee, executive director of the Applied Geography Conferences, Inc., transferred copyright from the Papers of the Applied Geography Conferences (AGC) to IGI Global for the following authors: Hernandez and Svindal, Gang, Joseph, Song and Keeling, Rock et al., and Zhou. The chapters originating from the AGC were revised, expanded significantly in most instances, and sent out for a second round of peer-reviews before being accepted for publication with the International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research. I would like to acknowledge Jay Lee, Executive Director of the Applied Geography Conferences, Inc., Nairne Cameron, Past Chair of the Applied Geography Special Group, and 2003 Anderson Medal recipient Dr. Barry Wellar for their assistance during 2010, notwithstanding the tremendous support from countless others from the applied geography community. Several individuals at Sam Houston State University (Huntsville, Texas) including Dr. Diane Dowdy, Associate Professor of English, Dr. John Strait, Associate Professor of Geography, Dr. Jaimie Hebert, former Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences and recently appointed Provost, Ann Holder, Director of Library Services, and numerous other colleagues have been encouraging and helpful.

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